Reporting Sexual Assault: Understanding Why It’s a Complex Decision
*Disclaimer: this content discusses sexual assault and may be difficult and triggering for some readers. This post was written about the context that adult survivors of sexual assault face when reporting.
Individuals who have experienced sexual assault are often referred to as survivors. Some people prefer the term victim, and others may identify with both terms at different times. Both words are valid. I’ll be using survivor here, while honouring that different people may feel differently.
After experiencing a sexual assault, one of the many questions that might be circulating in the survivor’s mind may be: Should I report this? This decision can feel overwhelming and heavy. Whatever choice you make as a survivor is valid. There is no right or wrong answer. And it’s normal to not feel 100% certain about the decision that you make.
I also want to acknowledge to any survivors reading this - you are in a position that no one should ever have to go through. It’s not okay, and I’m sorry this is a decision you’re having to weigh.
The Statistics
Sexual assault is a significant issue in Canada. Research shows that 30% of women and 8% of men aged 15 or older have experienced sexual assault; more than 11 million Canadians in total [1]. While this is a staggering number, it’s important to remember that each statistic represents a person and a story.
Although sexual assault can happen to anyone, certain communities experience it at higher rates, including LGBTQ+ individuals [2], women of colour [3], indigenous women [4, 5, 6], women serving in the military, women living and working in impoverished conditions, [4] women who have a disability, [7] as well as students [4, 8].
Sexual violence is most often committed by someone the survivor knows. In cases of sex crimes, 80% of survivors know the perpetrator: 28% are a family member, 41% an acquaintance, 10% a friend, and 20% a stranger [9].
Intimate partner sexual violence is also common. Approximately 3% of men and 20% of women have reported being sexually assaulted by a spouse [1].
Potential Impacts
Sexual assault can have a wide range of impacts on mental and physical health for survivors of all genders. These are normal responses to abnormal events.
Survivors are at a higher risk anxiety, depression, bi-polar conditions, eating disorders, obsessive-compulsive conditions, trauma related conditions like posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), substance abuse, [10, 11, 12], suicide ideation [13] and attempts [14]. Common trauma responses include flashbacks, nightmares, dissociation, hypervigilence, feeling a loss of safety and trust in other, feelings of shame, self-blame, or stigma. Again, these are common, completely normal trauma responses. It does not mean anything is wrong with you. From how I practice as a therapist, I typically view trauma responses are very protective, even if they don’t seem that way at first glance.
Disclosing and Reporting
Studies have found that many survivors (41 - 100%) of sexual assault will tell someone what happened to them at some point - most often to friends (87.9%), to family members (10%), and intimate partners (8.3%) [15, 16]. Reports to formal sources like police, are much, much, lower. 2019 Canadian data showed that only 6% of cases of sexual assault were reported to the police [17].
There are many reasons why someone might choose to report — or not. Research has found that several factors can influence this decision:
Who the Survivor is: People who are women [20], older [21], or from higher socioeconomic backgrounds [15] are more likely to report. Some studies also show that certain racial and ethnic groups, such as African American, Asian, Native American, and Pacific Islander women, are more likely to report compared to others — though these patterns are complex and not universal [21, 15, 19].
Details of the Assault: Survivors are more likely to report when the assault matches what society considers the “classic rape” stereotype, meaning it was violent, resulted in bodily harm, involved a weapon, and/or was committed by a stranger [15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. This may be because these situations line up with “stranger danger” narratives many of us were taught. As noted in the prior section, only 20% of sexual assault are committed by a stranger [1].
Not Knowing it was Sexual Assault: It’s not uncommon for survivors to not know that what happened to them was sexual assault. [25, 26] Especially when survivors are younger, they might believe these experiences are normal.
Relationship to the Perpetrator: Reporting is less likely when the perpetrator is an acquaintance, friend, partner, or family member, compared to when the perpetrator is a stranger [15, 19]. This connects closely with stigma, fear of retaliation, or pressure to keep the assault private.
Circumstances Around the Assault: Survivors who used drugs [27] or alcohol [15] at the time of the assault are less likely to report. On the other hand, experiencing intense fear during or after the assault makes reporting more likely [19].
Prior Sexual Assaults: Survivors who have experienced previous sexual assaults are often less likely to report new incidents [21, 27].
Concerns About Safety and Harm: Many survivors see choosing not to report as a form of self-protection, either to avoid further emotional harm or to reduce the risk of retaliation from the perpetrator [15, 19, 28]. The possibility of being re-traumatized through the criminal justice process itself is another significant deterrent [29].
Mental Health: Those experiencing impacts to their mental health like depression, trauma symptoms, or dissociation may feel less able to go through with the reporting process. At the same time, some survivors with high distress may seek reporting as a way to regain a sense of control [30]. Feelings of shame, guilt, or self-blame, and for male survivors, concerns about having their sexuality questioned, can also be powerful barriers [1, 31, 32].
Responses from Others: The support (or lack of support) that survivors receive from friends, family, and partners can have a big impact. Survivors who are encouraged to report by their support system are more likely to contact police, whereas survivors who are discouraged from reporting are far less likely to do so [33]. It’s important to remember that ultimately the decision to report is up to the survivor (assuming they are an adult). I recommend believing and providing support to the survivor without trying to persuade them towards a particular decision.
Knowledge, Trust, and Expectations of the System: Some survivors report not knowing how or where to file a report [34]. Others fear not being believed, anticipate skepticism or disrespect, or expect to be blamed [19, 26, 35, 36]. Survivors often weigh whether they believe their case will be taken seriously, if they feel strong enough for the emotional demands of reporting, and what their past experiences with the justice system have been like [29]. Unfortunately, responses from police are not always consistent. This unpredictability can understandably make survivors cautious.
Perceptions of Seriousness and Justice: Survivors may decide not to report because they feel the incident was “not serious enough” (87%), were unsure if it legally qualified as a crime (42%), believed police wouldn’t consider it serious (30%), believed that the police wouldn’t want to be bothered with the incident (20%), and/or that the survivor lacked proof that the assault had [15]. A common reason for not reporting is the belief that pursuing justice is unlikely to lead to a meaningful outcome [37].
Rape Myths: Beliefs such as “real rapes are always violent” or “if alcohol was involved, it doesn’t count” are examples of rape myths. When these myths are widely accepted, they not only discourage survivors from reporting but can also shape how society, and even institutions, respond [26].
Cultural and Community Norms: Cultural expectations around gender, sexuality, and family honour can impact the decision to report as there can be fear of stigma, shame, or community backlash [38].
Immigration or Legal Status: Survivors who are undocumented or have complexities with their immigration status may avoid reporting due to fears of deportation, mistrust of institutions, or worries about jeopardizing their legal status [39]. Sometimes the abuser may also be propelling these fears [40]. Support is still available in these situations. You can read more about navigating this complex situation here.
In Closing
Reporting sexual assault is a profoundly complex decision, shaped by each survivor’s circumstances, safety, and sense of what will help them heal. Whatever the survivor decides, it’s important to honour their feelings and process. Support is available, regardless of the choice to report or not. Reaching out to trusted friends, family, or a professional who specialized in trauma can help the survivor feel less alone and support in their healing journey.
Do You Need Support?
I specialize in working with trauma and complex trauma, which can frequently stem from sexual assault and childhood sexual abuse. If you live in British Columbia and are looking for a counsellor, I invite you to book in for a free 20-minute consultation by clicking here. And if I’m not the right fit? I’m always more than happy to make a referral to my trusted network of clinicians.
References
[1] Cotter, A., & Savage, L. (2019). Gender-based violence and unwanted sexual behaviour in Canada, 2018: Initial findings from the Survey of Safety in Public and Private Spaces. Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2019001/article/00017-eng.htm
[2] Messinger, A.M., & Koon-Magnin, S. (2019). Sexual violence in LGBT communities. Handbook of Sexual Assault and Sexual Assault Prevention, 661-674. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23645-8
[3] Benoit, C., Shumka, L., Phillips, R., Kennedy, M.C., & Belle‐Isle, L. (2014). Issue brief: Sexual violence against women in Canada. Ottawa: Status of Women Canada. https://www.gov.mb.ca/msw/_docs/publications/2015_issue_brief_sexual_violence.pdf
[4] Conroy, S., & Cotter, A. (2017). Self‐reported sexual assault in Canada, 2014. Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2017001/article/14842-eng.htm#
[5] Du Mont, J., Kosa, D., Macdonald, S., Benoit, A., & Forte, T. (2017). A comparison of Indigenous and non-Indigenous survivors of sexual assault and their receipt of and satisfaction with specialized health care services. PLOS ONE, 12(11), e0188253. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188253
[6] Kaye, J. (2016). Reconciliation in the context of settler‐colonial gender violence: “How do we reconcile with an abuser?”. Canadian Review of Sociology, 53(4), 461-467 . https://doi.org/10.1111/cars.12127
[7] Basile, K. C., Breiding, M. J., & Smith, S. G. (2016). Disability and risk of recent sexual violence in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 106(5), 928–933.
[8] Mellins, C. A., Walsh, K., Sarvet, A. L., Wall, M., Gilbert, L., Santelli, J. S., Thompson, M., Wilson, P. A., Khan, S., Benson, S., Bah, K., Kaufman, K. A., Reardon, L., & Hirsch, J. S. (2017). Sexual assault incidents among college undergraduates: Prevalence and factors associated with risk. PLOS ONE, 12(11), e0186471. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186471
[9] Government of Canada. (2022). Bill C-46: Records applications post-mills, a caselaw review. https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/csj-sjc/ccs-ajc/rr06_vic2/p3_4.html
[10] Campbell, R., Dworkin, E., & Cabral, G. (2009). An ecological model of the impact of sexual assault on women’s mental health. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 10, 225–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838009334456
[11] Dworkin, E. R., Menon, S. V., Bystrynski, J., & Allen, N. E. (2017). Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 56, 65–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.06.002
[12] Dworkin, E. R. (2020). Risk for mental disorders associated with sexual assault: A meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 21(5), 1011-1028. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018813198
[13] Gilmore, A. K., Ward-Ciesielski, E., Smalling, A., Limowski, A. R., Hahn, C. K., & Jaffe, A. E. (2020). Managing post-sexual assault suicide risk. Archives of Women's Mental Health, 23(5), 673-679. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-020-01047-7
[14] Rosellini, A. J., PhD., Street, A. E., PhD., Ursano, R. J., M.D., Chiu, W. T., M.S., Heeringa, S. G., PhD., Monahan, J., PhD., Naifeh, J. A., PhD., Petukhova, M. V., PhD., Reis, B. Y., PhD., Sampson, N. A., B.A., Bliese, P. D., PhD., Stein, M. B., M.D., Zaslavsky, A. M., PhD., & Kessler, R. C., PhD. (2017). Sexual assault victimization and mental health treatment, suicide attempts, and career outcomes among women in the US army. American Journal of Public Health, 107(5), 732-739. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2017.303693
[15] Fisher, B. S., Daigle, L. E., Cullen, F. T., & Turner, M. G. (2003). Reporting sexual victimization to the police and others: Results from a national-level study of college women. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 30, 6-38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854802239161
[16] Sabina, C., & Ho, L. Y. (2014). Campus and college victim responses to sexual assault and dating violence disclosure, service utilization, and service provision. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15, 201–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014521322
[17] Statistics Canada (2021). Criminal victimization in Canada 2019. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/210825/dq210825a-eng.htm
[18] Campbell, R., Wasco, S. M., Ahrens, C. E., Sefl, T., & Barnes, H. E. (2001). Preventing the “second rape”: Rape survivors’ experiences with community service providers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16(12), 1239–1259. doi:10.1177/088626001016012002
[19] Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Resnick, H. S., McCauley, J. L., Amstadter, A. B., Kilpatrick, D. G., & Ruggiero, K. J. (2011). Is reporting of rape on the rise? A comparison of women with reported versus unreported rape experiences in the National Women’s Study-Replication. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 807-832. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510365869
[20] Pino, N.W., Meier, R.F. (1999). Gender differences in rape reporting. Sex Roles, 40, 979–990. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018837524712
[21] Chen, Y., & Ullman, S. E. (2010). Women’s reporting of sexual and physical assaults to police in the National Violence Against Women Survey. Violence Against Women, 16(3), 262–279. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1077801209360861
[22] Addington, L. & Rennison, C. M. (2008). Rape co-occurrence: Do additional crimes affect victim reporting and police clearance of rape? Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 24(2), 205–226. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10940-008-9043-9
[23] Alderden, M., & Long, L. (2016). Sexual assault victim participation in police investigations and prosecution. Violence and Victims, 31(5), 819-836. doi: 10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-14-00103.
[24] Du Mont, J., Miller, K. L., & Myhr, T. (2003). The role of “real rape” and “real victim” stereotypes in the police reporting practices of sexually assaulted women. Violence Against Women, 9(4), 466–486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1077801202250960
[25] McDonald, S., & Tijerino, A. (2013). Male survivors of sexual abuse and assault: Their experiences. Department of Justice, Canada.
[26] Murphy-Oikonen, J., Chambers, L., McQueen, K., Hiebert, A., & Miller, A. (2022). Sexual assault: Indigenous women’s experiences of not being believed by the police. Violence against women, 28(5), 1237-1258.
[27] Heath, N. M., Lynch, S. M., Fritch, A. M. ,& Wong, M. M. (2013). Rape myth acceptance impacts the reporting of rape to the police: a study of incarcerated women. Violence Against Women, 19(9), 1065–1078. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801213501841
[28] Greeson, M. R., & Campbell, R. (2011). Rape survivors’ agency within the legal and medical systems. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(4), 582–595. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311418078
[29] Lorenz, K., Kirkner, A., & Ullman, S. E. (2019). A qualitative study of sexual assault survivors' post-assault legal system experiences. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 20(3), 263–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2019.1592643
[30] Ullman, S. E. (2005). Barriers to reporting sexual assault to the police: The role of rape myths and victim-blame. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29(1), 43–52.
[31] Orchowski, L. M., Untied, A. S., & Gidycz, C. A. (2013). Social reactions to disclosure of sexual victimization and adjustment among survivors of sexual assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(10), 2005–2023. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605124710
[32] Tewksbury, R. (2007). Physical, mental and sexual consequences. International Journal of Men’s Health, 6, 22-35.
[33] Paul, L. A., Zinzow, H. M., McCauley, J. L., Kilpatrick, D. G., & Resnick, H. S. (2013). Does encouragement by others increase rape reporting? Findings from a national sample of women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684313501999
[34] Kilpatrick D. G., Resnick H. S., Ruggiero K. J., Conoscenti L. M., & McCauley J. (2007). Drug-facilitated, incapacitated, and forcible rape: A national study (Document No. 219181). https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/219181.pdf
[35] Cohn, A. M., Zinzow, H. M., Resnick, H. S., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2013). Correlates of reasons for not reporting rape to police: results from a national telephone household probability sample of women with forcible or drug-or-alcohol facilitated/incapacitated rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(3), 455–473. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512455515
[36] Patterson, D. (2011). The impact of detectives’ manner of questioning on rape survivors’ disclosure. Violence Against Women, 17, 1349–1373. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801211434725
[37] Jones, J. S., Alexander, C., Wynn, B. N., Rossman, L., & Dunnuck, C. (2009). Why women don’t report sexual assault to the police: The influence of psychosocial variables and traumatic injury. Journal of Emergency Medicine, 36(4), 417–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2007.10.077
[38] Tillman, S., Bryant-Davis, T., Smith, K., & Marks, A. (2010). Shattering silence: Exploring barriers to disclosure for African American sexual assault survivors. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 11(2), 59–70.
[39] Bhuyan, R., & Smith-Carrier, T. (2012). Constructions of migrant rights in Canada: Discursive tensions and policy implications. International Migration, 50(1), e35–e49.
[40] Government of Canada. (n.d.) Help for spouses or partners who are victims of abuse. https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/immigrate-canada/family-sponsorship/abuse.html
*I do my best to ensure my posts are accurate and to cite reputable sources, however if you notice something that needs a correction please reach out to me at monica@beginagaintoday.ca.
